Race relations in Canada before the Second World War were marked by significant racial and ethnic stratification, with various communities experiencing systemic discrimination and exclusion. The nature of race relations in Canada during this period was influenced by colonial histories, immigration policies, and the dominant Anglo-Saxon cultural norms that prevailed in Canadian society. These racial hierarchies affected Indigenous peoples, African Canadians, Asian immigrants, and other minority groups, who were often marginalized and denied equal rights and opportunities. While some progress was made in challenging discriminatory practices, race relations in Canada were largely shaped by exclusionary policies and attitudes that reinforced the privileges of the white majority.
1. Indigenous Peoples and Colonial Displacement
Before the Second World War, Indigenous peoples in Canada faced significant discrimination and marginalization. The history of colonization had led to the dispossession of Indigenous lands, the imposition of European cultural norms, and the destruction of traditional Indigenous systems of governance and social organization. The colonial approach towards Indigenous peoples, particularly in the 19th and early 20th centuries, was paternalistic and assimilationist.
The Indian Act of 1876 exemplified the state’s treatment of Indigenous peoples. This legislation imposed strict control over Indigenous communities, dictating aspects of their lives such as governance, land rights, and cultural practices. Indigenous peoples were often forced onto reservations, which were isolated from the rest of Canadian society. The residential school system, which was established in the late 19th century and continued well into the 20th century, sought to forcibly assimilate Indigenous children by removing them from their families and cultures and placing them in institutions where they were prohibited from speaking their native languages and practicing their traditions.
Indigenous peoples were viewed as wards of the state, and their rights to self-governance and land ownership were severely restricted. Indigenous women, in particular, faced a double layer of discrimination, as both their gender and their Indigenous status limited their access to rights and protections under Canadian law. These colonial policies resulted in widespread poverty, cultural erosion, and social disintegration among Indigenous communities, which continued to impact relations between Indigenous peoples and the Canadian state well into the 20th century.
2. African Canadians and the Legacy of Slavery
The racial history of African Canadians is rooted in the legacy of slavery and segregation. While slavery was abolished in Canada in 1834, African Canadians continued to experience systemic racism and discrimination well into the 20th century. Many African Canadians were descendants of enslaved people who had either escaped slavery in the United States via the Underground Railroad or had been brought to Canada through slavery.
In the early 20th century, African Canadians faced social and legal exclusion in various spheres of life, including education, employment, and housing. African Canadian communities, particularly in urban centers like Toronto and Montreal, were often relegated to segregated neighborhoods, and their access to quality jobs and housing was limited. Employment discrimination was rampant, with many employers refusing to hire African Canadians or offering them only menial labor positions.
In addition to economic exclusion, African Canadians were subjected to racial prejudice and violent racism. Segregation was prevalent in public spaces, such as schools, theaters, and parks. The idea of racial superiority, rooted in colonial attitudes, was often used to justify discriminatory practices, and African Canadians were seen as inferior to white Canadians in both social and economic terms.
3. Asian Immigration and Exclusionary Policies
Asian immigrants, particularly those from China, Japan, and India, were subjected to discriminatory immigration policies and racial prejudice before the Second World War. The Chinese Immigration Act of 1885, also known as the Chinese Head Tax, was one of the most significant discriminatory policies directed at Asian immigrants. This law imposed a high fee on Chinese immigrants, effectively limiting the number of Chinese people who could immigrate to Canada. The head tax was seen as a way to discourage Chinese immigration, and it created a system of racial exclusion that persisted until the 1940s.
In addition to the Chinese Head Tax, Asian Canadians faced widespread discrimination in employment, education, and public life. Chinese Canadians were often relegated to low-paying and hazardous jobs, such as working on the Canadian Pacific Railway, which helped build the national infrastructure but offered little economic reward to Chinese laborers. The Japanese Canadian community also faced prejudice and were confined to low-status occupations, such as agriculture and fishing. Similarly, South Asian immigrants, primarily from India, faced racial discrimination and were excluded from many parts of Canadian society. South Asians were often denied the right to vote, and racial prejudice led to the imposition of “whites-only” policies in certain industries.
The rise of anti-Asian sentiment in the early 20th century was fueled by the belief that Asian immigrants were a threat to Canadian jobs and the social fabric. In response to the perceived threat of Japanese immigration, the Komagata Maru incident in 1914 highlighted the racial exclusion faced by South Asian immigrants. A ship carrying 376 passengers of Indian origin was denied entry to Canada, despite their attempts to claim asylum. This event is a notable example of the racially discriminatory immigration policies that were in place during this period.
4. The Role of Immigration Policies in Shaping Race Relations
Canada’s immigration policies were explicitly designed to favor white European immigrants, particularly from Britain, while discouraging immigrants from non-European countries. The continuous journey regulation of 1908, which required immigrants to travel to Canada without stopping at any other port, was aimed at preventing Asian immigrants from entering the country. This policy, along with other restrictive immigration laws, reflected the racial hierarchies that were entrenched in Canadian society at the time.
While certain European immigrant groups were welcomed, particularly those from Britain and later from Eastern and Southern Europe, other racialized groups faced discrimination in their attempts to enter the country. Canada’s preference for white Europeans, combined with its overt exclusion of non-white groups, created a racially stratified society where racial minorities were consistently marginalized and denied the same opportunities afforded to white Canadians.
5. The Changing Dynamics Before the Second World War
Despite the pervasive racial prejudice and discriminatory policies in Canada before the Second World War, some groups began to challenge these inequities. The growing movements for labor rights, women’s suffrage, and civil rights in the early 20th century provided a platform for the mobilization of racialized groups. African Canadians, for example, began to establish advocacy groups such as the Toronto Negro Community Association in the early 1900s, which sought to address racial inequality in employment, housing, and education.
However, these early efforts were often met with resistance from the dominant white society, and change was slow. The rise of fascism and World War II ultimately shifted the focus of Canadian policy, and the war effort led to the re-examination of racial policies. In particular, the contributions of racial minorities to the war effort began to challenge racist assumptions, especially as African Canadians, Indigenous peoples, and Asian Canadians served in various capacities.
Conclusion
Race relations in Canada before the Second World War were characterized by exclusion, discrimination, and systemic racism. Indigenous peoples, African Canadians, and Asian immigrants were marginalized through legal and social barriers that reinforced racial hierarchies. While some progress was made, particularly through the efforts of racial minority groups to challenge discriminatory policies, the period before the war was marked by a lack of equal rights and opportunities for these communities. The discriminatory policies of the time, along with the prevailing racial prejudices, set the stage for the racial struggles and civil rights movements that would emerge in Canada after the war, leading to significant changes in the country’s approach to race relations in the mid-20th century.