The 1960s and 1970s marked a significant period in the history of Aboriginal self-government in Canada. During this time, both the federal government and Indigenous leaders began to seriously address the longstanding issues of governance, land rights, and cultural preservation. The period witnessed an evolution from policies of assimilation to policies recognizing the inherent right of Indigenous peoples to self-determination and self-governance.
Background Context: The Need for Reform
Prior to the 1960s, the Canadian government’s approach to Indigenous peoples was largely rooted in assimilationist policies. Indigenous peoples were seen as subjects to be integrated into the mainstream Canadian society, with little regard for their political autonomy or cultural identity. This approach was embodied in policies like the Indian Act of 1876, which enforced a paternalistic relationship between the government and Indigenous communities, effectively stripping them of their political powers, land rights, and traditional governing structures.
However, the 1960s and 1970s were marked by significant social changes in Canada and globally, including the rise of civil rights movements, the demand for greater autonomy for marginalized groups, and a re-examination of colonial legacies. Indigenous leaders began to assert their rights to self-governance, and there was growing recognition of the need to create policies that would support Indigenous autonomy rather than enforce assimilation.
The White Paper (1969)
A key event that marked the federal government’s recognition of Indigenous issues was the release of the White Paper on Indian Policy in 1969. The document, proposed by then-Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau’s government, recommended the abolition of the Indian Act and the elimination of Indian status as a means to promote integration and equality for Indigenous peoples. While the White Paper argued that Indigenous peoples should be treated equally under Canadian law, it failed to recognize the distinctiveness of Indigenous nations and their right to self-government. Instead of empowering Indigenous communities, the White Paper was widely criticized for its assimilationist approach.
The reaction to the White Paper was swift and strong. Indigenous organizations, such as the National Indian Brotherhood (NIB), strongly opposed the proposal, arguing that it undermined their rights to self-governance, land, and cultural preservation. This backlash was pivotal in shifting the direction of government policy. The intense opposition to the White Paper highlighted the importance of recognizing Indigenous peoples as distinct nations with their own governance structures, rather than treating them as an isolated minority group.
The Formation of the First Nations and Indigenous Rights Movement
The 1970s witnessed a significant change in the way Indigenous peoples were viewed in the context of Canadian politics. The opposition to the White Paper catalyzed the emergence of a more organized and vocal Indigenous rights movement. The National Indian Brotherhood (NIB), which later became the Assembly of First Nations (AFN), began advocating for the recognition of aboriginal rights and self-governance. Indigenous leaders, such as George Manuel and Harold Cardinal, became prominent voices advocating for the rights of Indigenous peoples to control their lands, resources, and governance structures.
The political pressure exerted by Indigenous groups in the 1970s led to a change in the federal government’s stance. Trudeau’s government began to move away from assimilationist policies and towards recognizing the inherent right of Indigenous peoples to govern themselves.
The Indian Self-Government Policy (1970s)
By the early 1970s, the government recognized that a new approach was necessary. In 1973, the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples was established to examine the relationship between Indigenous peoples and the Canadian state. This commission laid the groundwork for new policies supporting Aboriginal self-government.
In 1973, the Canadian government introduced the Indian Self-Government Policy, which acknowledged the need for Indigenous peoples to have greater control over their political, cultural, and economic affairs. The policy was a significant shift from previous assimilationist approaches and called for the recognition of the right of Indigenous nations to govern themselves.
The Nisga’a Treaty in British Columbia (1973), also known as the Nisga’a Land Claim Agreement, was one of the first concrete expressions of self-government agreements between an Indigenous group and the Canadian government. It marked the beginning of a series of negotiations over land and governance, which would become a central part of the broader movement for Indigenous self-determination.
The White Paper’s Failure and the Shift to Treaty Talks
Despite the initial pushback against the White Paper, the Trudeau government persisted in its efforts to change the status of Indigenous peoples. However, the growing opposition led to a recalibration of the government’s approach, culminating in the Constitutional Act of 1982, which recognized and affirmed aboriginal rights in Canada, a critical turning point in the advancement of Indigenous self-government.
Throughout the 1970s, the Indian Self-Government Policy was refined and expanded, and a number of land claims agreements were reached between Indigenous nations and the government, most notably the James Bay Agreement in Quebec (1975). This agreement was the first modern-day land claims agreement in Canada and became a model for other self-government and land claims negotiations.
The 1976 Statement of the Government of Canada on Indian Self-Government
In 1976, the Canadian government issued the Statement of the Government of Canada on Indian Self-Government, which further emphasized the importance of recognizing Indigenous peoples’ right to self-government. It outlined that self-government would involve control over certain aspects of governance, such as health, education, and land management, while other matters, such as defence and foreign policy, would remain under federal jurisdiction.
Conclusion
The 1960s and 1970s were pivotal decades for the evolution of Aboriginal self-government in Canada. The period saw a significant shift from policies of assimilation to policies recognizing the political rights and autonomy of Indigenous peoples. The White Paper (1969), despite its failure, triggered a national dialogue that ultimately led to the Indian Self-Government Policy and laid the foundation for the Constitution Act of 1982, which would formally recognize aboriginal rights in Canada. The decade also saw the beginning of key land claims agreements, including the Nisga’a Treaty and the James Bay Agreement, which set important precedents for future self-government arrangements. While significant strides were made in these years, the struggle for full self-governance continues to evolve, especially in the context of ongoing treaty negotiations and the push for recognition of Indigenous sovereignty.