IGNOUMATIC

Religion in pre-modern India was not just a matter of personal belief but a powerful force that shaped the political landscape. The intertwining of religion and polity can be traced across various dynasties, regions, and periods in India’s history. Religion influenced governance, statecraft, laws, social structures, and even warfare. Pre-modern India, predominantly a Hindu-majority society, was heavily shaped by religious beliefs and rituals, while Islam, particularly from the medieval period onwards, added a new dimension to the religious-political discourse. This essay will discuss the major ways in which religion influenced polity in pre-modern India, focusing on Hinduism, Islam, and their roles in governance, lawmaking, and political organization.

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I. Religious Influence in Ancient and Early Medieval India

In ancient and early medieval India, religion was central to both legitimizing power and structuring society. The rulers often saw themselves as representatives or manifestations of divine power.

1. Divine Kingship:
   • Early Indian rulers, especially in the Maurya and Gupta periods, adopted the idea of divine kingship. The king was seen as an earthly representation of the divine and his authority was justified through religious sanction. The most prominent example of this can be found in the figure of Chandragupta Maurya who was said to have been under the protection of the god Vishnu. Similarly, during the Gupta Empire, the concept of devaraja (the king as the god’s representative) was a key feature of governance.
   • Religious practices such as Vedic sacrifices (Yajnas) and offerings to gods were used to legitimize the rule of kings and to assert their divine right to rule. Rulers often patronized priests and religious institutions to establish and consolidate their authority.
2. The Role of Religion in Lawmaking:
   • In ancient and medieval India, laws were often derived from religious texts. Dharma (moral law), as described in texts like the Manusmriti, governed the social, political, and economic life of individuals and communities. The Manusmriti, for example, not only outlined social hierarchy and duties based on caste but also provided a code of governance that rulers were expected to follow.
   • Religious institutions, such as temples, had significant influence over local governance. For example, during the Chola dynasty, temples were not only centers of worship but also held considerable political and economic power, with land grants and local administration managed by temple authorities.
3. The Influence of Religion in Warfare and Diplomacy:
   • Religion was also deeply connected to warfare. Hindu rulers often invoked religious justification for military campaigns. Ashoka, the Mauryan emperor, after his conversion to Buddhism, refrained from warfare and instead promoted peace and Dhamma (righteousness). However, earlier Hindu kings, such as those in the Gupta period, invoked the divine right to conquer territories.
   • The Islamic expansion into India in the medieval period further complicated the interplay between religion and politics. Islamic rulers, such as Delhi Sultanate rulers, viewed their conquests as religious duty and governed according to Islamic principles. Sufi saints and scholars often played a dual role in both spiritual guidance and political advisory.

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II. Influence of Religion in the Islamic Period (Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire)

The arrival of Islam in India significantly altered the religious-political landscape. Religion influenced governance, law, and political practice in distinct ways during the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and the Mughal Empire (1526–1857).

1. The Sultanate and the Role of Religion:
   • The Delhi Sultanate was established by Muslim rulers, and Islam became the dominant religion in the political sphere. Sharia law played a prominent role in the legal system, particularly in the administration of justice. The relationship between the Muslim rulers and their Hindu subjects was complex. While the rulers often maintained political and military power, they also needed the support of Hindu elites and religious leaders to maintain control.
   • The Delhi Sultans often attempted to integrate their rule with Islamic principles, but at the same time, they had to accommodate the Hindu majority. This led to a complex interplay between religious tolerance and coercion.
2. The Mughal Empire and Religious Tolerance:
   • The Mughal Empire, particularly under Akbar (r. 1556–1605), is often seen as a period of religious syncretism and tolerance. Akbar adopted a policy of Sulh-e-Kul (universal tolerance) and invited scholars from different religious traditions to debate religious matters in his court. He tried to reconcile Hinduism with Islam, promoting policies that favored religious coexistence.
   • Akbar’s religious reforms, such as abolishing the jizya tax on non-Muslims, demonstrated a political strategy of integrating diverse religious communities. However, his successors, such as Aurangzeb, had a different approach, opting for policies that were more Islamic in nature, leading to a religious divide and the marginalization of Hindus in some areas.

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III. The Role of Religion in Colonial India

With the advent of British colonial rule in India, the relationship between religion and polity took a new turn. The British were often accused of exploiting religious divisions to further their political and economic interests.

1. British Policies and Religious Identity:
   • The British colonial state was often accused of using religion as a tool to divide Indian society, particularly through their divide-and-rule policies. The British viewed India’s religious diversity as a challenge to governance, and they attempted to categorize religious identities more sharply, especially with the introduction of census surveys that codified religious distinctions.
   • Religious movements, such as the Arya Samaj and Brahmo Samaj, arose during the colonial period, aiming to reform Hinduism and rid it of what were seen as superstitions. These movements, although not politically motivated in the beginning, began to influence the political landscape by challenging the colonial narrative of a degenerate and static Indian society.
2. Religious Movements and Politics:
   • The social reform movements of the 19th century, led by figures like Rammohun Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Swami Vivekananda, were deeply intertwined with religion. These reformers sought to bring modernity and rationality to Indian religion, while also promoting social justice, particularly for women and lower castes.
   • Islamic reformist movements, such as the Aligarh Movement led by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, focused on modernizing Islam and educating Muslims in the Western style to ensure their participation in the colonial state.

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IV. Conclusion

Religion has had a profound influence on polity in pre-modern India. From divine kingship to the legitimation of power through religious authority, religion provided the basis for governance, social structure, and law. The arrival of Islam in India introduced new challenges and opportunities for governance, especially during the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. In the colonial era, religion continued to shape politics, but it also became a tool for social reform and political mobilization. Thus, the relationship between religion and polity in pre-modern India was not only complex but also dynamic, with religion acting as both a force for stability and change.