St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) was a medieval philosopher and theologian whose work greatly influenced the development of Christian philosophy and the relationship between Church and State. His views on politics, particularly the role and relationship between the Church and the State, were pivotal in shaping the political and theological discourse of his time. Aquinas’ ideas continue to be influential in both religious and secular discussions about the nature of government and the role of religious institutions in politics.
Aquinas’ political philosophy is largely articulated in his most important theological work, Summa Theologica, where he addresses the nature of law, authority, and governance. To understand his views on the Church and the State, it is necessary to explore his broader understanding of natural law, divine law, and the common good.
1. The Nature of Law and Authority
Aquinas believed in a hierarchical structure of law, where different types of law govern different spheres of human activity. These laws are all directed towards the common good, which is the ultimate purpose of human society. The three main types of law that Aquinas identified are:
- Eternal Law: The divine order of the universe, created by God, which governs all creation.
- Natural Law: A rational understanding of eternal law, which humans can perceive through reason and which provides the foundation for human ethics and morality.
- Human Law: The specific laws created by human authorities (including the State) to govern civil society, which should be based on natural law and contribute to the common good.
Aquinas saw the State as having a legitimate role in enforcing human law to promote the common good, which includes both material welfare and moral well-being. However, he believed that all laws should be morally just and should aim at promoting the ultimate purpose of human life, which is salvation through God.
2. The Role of the Church
Aquinas believed that the Church and the State had distinct, yet complementary, roles in society. He argued that while the Church focuses on the spiritual well-being of individuals and the salvation of souls, the State is responsible for ensuring the material well-being of society and maintaining civil order.
In Aquinas’ view, the Church‘s primary concern is the salvation of human beings, which is achieved through spiritual guidance, the administration of the sacraments, and the preaching of divine truths. The Church provides the moral and theological framework necessary for individuals to live virtuous lives and achieve their ultimate purpose in life.
On the other hand, the State is tasked with ensuring justice and the common good in the earthly realm. The State’s role is to enforce human law, protect property, maintain peace, and ensure that individuals can live together harmoniously. While the State is not concerned with the salvation of souls, it is still important that it promotes an environment in which people can pursue their moral and spiritual ends.
3. The Relationship Between Church and State
Aquinas acknowledged that there could be tensions between the Church and the State, particularly regarding issues of authority and jurisdiction. However, he argued that both the Church and the State are divinely instituted and that their powers are complementary, rather than in conflict. The Church is concerned with the spiritual authority over the souls of individuals, while the State has temporal power over civil matters.
Aquinas also believed that the Church could and should offer guidance to the State, especially when it comes to moral and ethical matters. In his view, the State‘s laws must be in accordance with natural law (which reflects God’s divine will) and must aim at promoting the common good. Since the Church has a deep understanding of natural law through its divine teachings, it is reasonable for the Church to provide counsel to the rulers of the State on moral issues.
However, Aquinas also recognized that the State had its own authority and should not be subject to the direct rule of the Church. The Church should not interfere with the secular governance of the State in matters such as war, taxation, or civil justice, as these are not the Church’s domain. Thus, Aquinas advocated for a form of cooperation between the Church and the State, with each maintaining its respective domain but working together for the common good of society.
4. The Limits of Church Authority
Aquinas was aware of the potential for abuses of power both by secular rulers and ecclesiastical authorities. While he acknowledged that the Church holds a higher moral authority, he was clear that the Church should not exercise political power in the same way that the State does. In situations where Church leaders, such as bishops or the Pope, overstep their spiritual role and attempt to impose their authority on temporal matters, Aquinas believed that the State had the right to assert its independence.
Aquinas held that the State‘s ultimate authority comes from God, but that God’s authority is mediated through the rational and moral order of natural law. This means that the State must adhere to the principles of justice and morality, and if the Church’s actions violate natural law or undermine the common good, the State has the right to resist or correct them.
For example, Aquinas would not have supported the Church’s interference in matters like the enforcement of secular laws or military decisions, as these fall outside the scope of the Church’s spiritual mission. Similarly, he believed that the Church should not hold temporal power over the State, such as excommunicating or deposing rulers, unless they were in direct violation of divine law.
5. The Church and Political Authority: A Practical Example
Aquinas’ views on the relationship between Church and State have been used as a guide for Christian monarchs and rulers in medieval Europe. His ideas were particularly influential in the justification of monarchy, as well as in the discussions on papal authority and ecclesiastical independence.
His philosophy sought to strike a balance between religious influence and political sovereignty, with a view to the greater good of society. In this way, Aquinas also indirectly contributed to the idea of a “Christian polity”—a state in which both Church and State work together to promote a virtuous and morally just society.
Conclusion St. Thomas Aquinas’ views on the Church and the State reflect a harmonious vision of dual sovereignty, where both institutions have distinct roles but must work together for the common good. The Church guides individuals spiritually towards salvation, while the State governs their material welfare and enforces justice. Aquinas emphasized that the State must respect the teachings of the Church, but it also must assert its independence in matters of civil governance. His thoughts on the relationship between the two institutions have been influential in both the development of Christian political theory and in the evolution of modern ideas of church-state relations.
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